Micro Teaching

MICRO TEACHING….. 

The art of teaching does not merely involve a simple transfer of knowledge from one to other. Instead, it is a complex process that facilitates and influences the process of learning. Quality of a teacher is estimated on how much the students understand from his/her teaching. The classrooms cannot be used as a learning platform for acquiring primary teaching skills. The pedagogic skill for teaching can be acquired only through more structured and cheaper faculty training techniques. With the introduction of micro teaching about five decades ago, the lacunae of scientifically proven or effective methods to be followed in teacher training programs has been overcome.

Teaching - Meaning

• Teaching is the stimulation, guidance, direction and encouragement of learning.
• Teaching is the communication between two or more persons, who influence each other by their ideas and learn something in the process of interaction.
• Teaching is to fill the minds of the learner by information and knowledge of facts for future use.
• Teaching is the process in which learner, teacher and other variables are organized in a systematic way to attain some pre-determined goals.
• Teaching is to cause the child to learn and acquire the desired knowledge, skills and also desired ways of living in the society.
• Teaching is the stimulation, guidance, direction and encouragement of learning.

Teaching is to cause the child to learn and acquire the desired knowledge, skills and also desired ways of living in the society.

Teaching : Definition

“Teaching is an intimate contact between a more mature personality and less mature one which is designed to further the education of the latter.” - (H.C. Morrison, 1934)

"Teaching means many different things, that teaching act varies from person to person and from situation to situation. " -            (Bar, 1961)

"The behaviour or activities of persons as they go about doing whatever is required of teachers, particularly those activities which are concerned with the guidance or direction of learning of others." - (Ryan, 1965)

What is a teaching skill ?

·   A teaching skill is that behaviour of the teacher which facilitates pupils’ learning directly or indirectly.

·      A teaching skill includes all arts and behaviour of the teacher which maximizes pupils’ learning.

·     A teaching skill is that art of the teacher which makes communication between the teacher and pupils sufficiently

Definition      

“Micro teaching is a scaled down teaching encounter in class size and time”                                                                                                   - D.W.Allen(1966)

Micro teaching is a scaled down teaching encounter in which a teacher teaches a small unit to a group of five pupils for a small period of 5 to 20 minutes.                                                                             - L.C. Singh (1977)

              Micro teaching is a teacher training technique for learning teaching skills. It employs real teaching situation for developing skills and helps to get deeper knowledge regarding the art of teaching. This Stanford technique involved the steps of “plan, teach, observe, re-plan, re-teach and re-observe” and has evolved as the core component in 91% of on-campus clinical teaching development programs, with the significant reduction in the teaching complexities with respect to number of students in a class, scope of content, and timeframe, etc. Most of the pre-service teacher education programs widely use micro teaching, and it is a proven method to attain gross improvement in the instructional experiences. Effective student teaching should be the prime quality of a teacher. As an innovative method of equipping teachers to be effective, skills and practices of micro teaching have been implemented.

Attempts have been made to list teaching skills. Allen and Ryan listed the following teaching skills at Stanford University in the U.S.A.

1.         Stimulus Variation

2.         Set induction

3.         Closure

4.         Teacher silence and non-verbal cues

5.         Reinforcing pupil participation

6.         Fluency in questioning

7.         Probing questioning

8.         Use of higher questions

9.         Divergent questions

10.      Recognizing and attending behaviour

11.      Illustrating and use of examples

12.      Lecturing

13.      Planned repetition

14.      Completeness of communication

Micro teaching, a teacher training technique currently practiced worldwide, provides teachers an opportunity to perk up their teaching skills by improving the various simple tasks called teaching skills. With the proven success among the novice and seniors, micro teaching helps to promote real-time teaching experiences. The core skills of micro teaching such as presentation and reinforcement skills help the novice teachers to learn the art of teaching at ease and to the maximum extent.

          Micro teaching can be practiced with a very small lesson or a single concept and a less number of students. It scales down the complexities of real teaching, as immediate feedback can be sought after each practice session. The modern-day multimedia equipment such as audio–video recording devices have a key role in the learning process.

Observing a fellow teacher and using a trial-and-error in own teaching sessions are very common way of self-training. But, both of them have their own demerits. On the other hand, micro teaching helps in eliminating errors and builds stronger teaching skills for the beginners and senior teachers. Micro teaching increases the self-confidence, improves the in-class teaching performances, and develops the classroom management skills.

 Characteristic of Micro teaching

              •     Micro teaching is a highly individualized training device

              •     Micro teaching is an experiment in the field of teacher   education which has been incorporated in the practice teaching schedule

              •     It is a student teaching skill training technique and not a teaching technique or method

              •     Micro teaching is micro in the sense that it scale down the complexities of real teaching

     •    Practicing one skill at a time

     •    Reducing the class size to 5 – 10 pupil

     •    Reducing the duration of lesson to 5 – 10 minutes

     •   Limiting the content to a single concept

     •       immediate feedback helps in improving, fixing and motivating learning

     •       The student  are providing immediate feedback in terms of peer group feedback, tape recorded/CCT

Steps and requirements of micro teaching

Knowledge acquisition, skill acquisition, and transfer are the three different phases of micro teaching. May phases including micro teaching, Knowledge acquisition phase is the preparatory, pre -active phase, in which the teacher gets trained on the skills and components of teaching through lectures, discussion, illustration, and demonstration of the skill by the experts. In the interactive, skill acquisition phase, the teacher plans a micro-lesson for practicing the demonstrated skills. The colleagues and peers can act as constructive evaluates which also enable them to modify their own teaching-earning practices. The teacher can reinforce behaviors and skills that are necessary and extinguish that are not needed. Ultimately, they can integrate and transfer this learned skills from simulated teaching situation to real class room teaching.  There are  10 key steps including  micro teaching activity.

Core Teaching Skills

It is not possible to train all the pupil teachers in all these skills in any training programme because of the constraints of time and funds. Therefore a set of teaching skills which cuts across the subject areas has been identified. They have been found very useful for every teacher. The set of these skills are known as CORE TEACHING SKILLS

Core Teaching Skills are:

          1.     Skill of Probing Questions

          2.     Skill of Explaining

          3.     Skill of Illustrating With Examples

          4.     Skill of Stimulus Variation

     5.     Skill of Reinforcement

     6.     Skill of Classroom Management

     7.     Skill of Using Blackboard

     8.    Skill of Introducing a lesson

Core skills applicable in micro teaching

The core techniques involved with micro teaching are based on the fact that teaching can be analyzed and estimated using various simple teaching tasks/skills, which are a set of behavior or acts of the teacher that facilitates learning (directly or indirectly). During the origin of micro teaching, almost 20 teaching skills have been identified. But, it has now increased up to 37 or even more. Listed below are some of the important teaching skills.

 Lesson planning

It involves the preparation of a micro-lesson which should be organized in a logical sequence. The content should be concise, appropriate, relevant, and could cover the specified duration

Presentation and explanation

This involves the skills required to explain with clarity and proper understanding of the concepts. The components include teacher enthusiasm, creating readiness by a beginning statement or topic sentence, effective explanation, planned repetition, and concluding statements or key messages with summary of explanation.

Illustrating with examples

The teacher trainee should be able to rightly explain the concept by simple, relevant, and interesting examples to increase learners’ understanding.

Reinforcement

This skill is meant for increasing the participation of the learners in the development of teaching process. Use of positive verbal and non-verbal cues would be key component for this skill.

Stimulus variation

Securing and sustaining the attention of the learner is imperative for a good teacher. The effective components of the skill are gestures, change in speech pattern, and change in interaction style.

Probing questions

It is important to allow and encourage the fellow trainees to ask structured questions and clarify doubts. Redirection, refocusing, and increasing critical awareness are significant components of this skill.

Classroom management

Providing proper instructions, restricting inappropriate behavior, and calling the learners by name are essentials of this skill.

Using audiovisual aids

The increased awareness of the audiovisual aids is important for this skill. Adequate spacing, distinct size, proper spacing between words and lines, and use of relevant words or phrases are the key components for this skill.

INDIAN VEDIC EDUCATION.............

VEDIC EDUCATION

MAJOR FEATURES OF THE VEDIC SYSTEM OF EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA

             CONTENTS

v Introduction

v Salient Features Of Vedic Education In Ancient India

v Forms Of Educational Institutions In Vedic Period

v Role Of Teacher And Students

v Conclusion

 

INTRODUCTION

 The education system which was evolved first in ancient India is known as the Vedic system of education. In other words, the ancient system of education were based on the Vedas and therefore it was given the name of Vedic Educational System. Vedas occupy a very important place in the Indian life. The basis of Indian culture lies in the Vedas which are four in number – Rigveda, Samveda, Yajurveda, and Atharavaveda.  Some scholars have sub divided Vedic Educational period into Rig

Veda period, Brahmani period, Upanishada period, Sutra (Hymn) period, Smriti period etc but all these period, due to predominance of the Vedas, there was no change in the aims and ideals of educations. That is why, the education of these periods, is studied under Vedic period.

“Swadesh Pujyate Raja, Vidwan Sarvatra Pujyate”

 This verse widely quoted in India illustrates the significance of education in India. The education system of Vedic period has unique characteristics and qualities which were not found in the ancient education system of any other country of the world.

 According to Dr. F. E. Key, “To achieve their aim not only did Brahmans develop a system of education which, survived even in the events of the crumbling of empires and the changes of society, but they, also through all those thousands of years, kept a glow of torch of higher learning.”

 In the words of Dr. P. N. Prabhu, “Education in ancient India was free from any external control like that of the state and government or any party politics. It was the kings duties to see that learned Pundits, pursued their studies and performed their duty of imparting knowledge without interference from any source what so ever.”

The education system that prevailed during the Vedic times had some unique characteristics. Education was confined to the upper castes, and to those who were BRAHMACHARIS. In Indian tradition, a person’s life cycle is divided into four stages of which BRAHMACHARI is the second phase. This is the time set aside for learning and acquiring skills. During Vedic period, most of the upper castes, which were either Brahmins or Kshatriyas had their education in a unique system called GURUKULAM. Students had their education by living with their preceptors in forests far removed from cities, towns or villages. The life of students who were called SHISYAS was very rigorous and demanding. Those who failed to live up to these high standards would simply fall by the wayside. There were legendary acharyas like Sanandeepani and Dronacharya who taught epic heroes like Krishna and Arjuna martial skills, but what makes the Vedic period unique is the existence of sages like Gautama and Jaimini who were founder of different schools of Indian philosophy like Nyaya and Purva Mimamsa. This was a period of intense intellectual activity and speculation, which we hardly find even now. While Nyaya and Vaisheshika were theistic philosophies, Sankhya was atheistic.

There were of two types of BRAHMACHARIS who attended such GURUKULAMS, they were: UPAKURVANA BRAHMACHARI who remains a student for a limited time period after which he marries and becomes a householder and NAISHTHIKA BRAHMACHARI who remains a student and celibate throughout life dedicated to the pursuit of learning.

SALIENT FEATURES OF VEDIC EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA

1.      Infusion of Spiritual& Religious Values:

The primary aim of ancient education was instilling into the minds, of pupils a spirit of being pious and religious for glory of God and good of man. The pursuit of knowledge was a pursuit of religious values. Education without religions instructions was not education at all. It was believed that a keener appreciation of spiritual values could be fostered only through a strict observance if religious rites.

2.      Character Formation and Personality Development

In no period of the History of India, was so much stress laid on character building as in the Vedic period. Wisdom consisted in the practice of moral values. Control of senses and practice of virtues made one a man of character. Moral excellence could come only through practising moral values. The teacher and the taught were ideals of morality, for both practiced it all through their lives.  The Guru in the ancient times realized that the development of personality is the sole aim of education. The qualities of self-esteem, self confidence, self restraint and self respect were the personality traits that the educator tried to inoculate in his pupils through example.

3.      Development of Civic Responsibilities and Social Values

The inculcation of civic virtues and social values was an equally important objective of education in India. The Brahmachari after his education in the Gurukulas went back to the society to serve the rich and the poor, to relieve the diseased and the distressed. He was required to be hospitable to the guests and charitable to the needy. After a certain period of studies he was required to become a householder and to perpetuate his race and transmit his culture to his own off springs.

4.       Knowledge:

Education is knowledge. It is mans third eye. This aphorism means that knowledge opens mans inner eye, flooding him with spiritual and divine light, which forms the provision for man‘s journey through life.

5. Aims of Education:

The ultimate aim of education in ancient Indian was not knowledge as preparation for life in this world or for life beyond, but for complete realization of self for liberation of the soul from the chains of life both present and future.

6. Methods of Instruction

It was a pupil centered education. No single method of instruction was adopted, though recitation by the pupil followed by explanation by the teacher, was generally followed. Besides question – Answer, Debate and Discussion, Story telling was also adopted according to need. There was no classroom teaching. However monitorial system was prevalent and senior pupils were appointed to teach Juniors. Travel was regarded as necessary to give finishing touch to education so the methods of teaching generally practiced during vedic period were mainly Maukhik (oral and other method was based on Chintan (thinking or reflection) In the oral method the students were to memorize the mantras (Vedic Hyms) and Richayas (Verses of Rigveda) in order that there might not be changed wrongly and they might remain preserved in their original forms.

7. Medium of Instruction

As these educational institutions were managed and organized by Brahmans and all the books written in Sanskrit, therefore the medium of instruction was Sanskrit.

8. The ‘Upnayana’ Ritual

The word ‗upnayana ‗means to take close to, or to being in touch with. A ceremony called the upnayana ceremony was performed before the child was taken to his teacher. This ceremony was performed at the ages of 8,11 and 12 for the Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas, respectively. The ceremony signaled the childs transition from infancy to childhood and his initiation into educational life. In this context, the term ‗upanayana‘ means putting the students in touch with his teacher.

9. Celibacy or Brahamacharya

Every student was required to observe celibacy in his specific path of life. Purity of conduct was regarded as of supreme importance. Only the unmarried could become students in a Gurukul. On entering student life, the student was made to wear a special girdle called a ‗makhla‘. Its quality depended on the caste of the student. The students were not allowed to make use of fragrant, cosmetic or intoxicating things.

10. Alms System

The student had to bear the responsibility of feeding both himself and his teacher, this was done through begging for alms, which was not considered bad. Since every domestic knew that his own son must be begging for alms in the same way at some other place. The reason behind the introduction of such a practice was that accepting alms induces humility. The student realized that both education and subsequent earning of livelihood were made possible for him only through society‘s service and its sympathy. For the poor students, Begging for alms was compulsory and unavoidable, but even among the prosperous, it was generally accepted practice.

11. Practicability

Apart from intellectual aspect of education its practical side was not lost sight of and along with art, literature and philosophy, students got a working knowledge of animal husbandry, agriculture and other professions of life. In addition education in medicine was also imported.

12. Duration of Education

In the house of the teacher, the student was required to obtain education up to the age of 24, after which he was expected to enter domestic life students were divided into three categories:

a) These obtaining education up to the age of 24 – Vasu

b) These obtaining education up to the age of 36 – Rudra

c) These obtaining education up to the age of 48.- Auditya.

13. Curriculum

Although the education of this period was dominated by the study of Vedic Literature, historical study, stories of heroic lives and discourses on the puranas also formed a part of the syllabus. Students had necessarily to obtain knowledge of metrics. Arithmetic was supplemented by the knowledge of geometry. Students were given knowledge of four Vedas – Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda. The syllabus took with in its compass such subjects as spiritual as well as materialistic knowledge, Vedas, Vedic grammar, arithmetic knowledge of gods, knowledge of the absolute, knowledge of ghosts, astronomy, logic philosophy ethics, conduct etc. The richness of the syllabus was responsible of the creation of Brahman literature in this period.

14. Plain Living and High Thinking

The education institutions were residential in the form of Gurukulas situated in forest, where teachers and pupils lived together. Education imparted was in the pure, colm and charming atmosphere of the Gurukulas and Ashramas and emphasis was laid on the development of character through ‗Plain Living and High Thinking‘.

15. Academic Freedom

Due to academic freedom students remained busy in thinking and meditation. It enhanced originality among them

16. High place to Indian culture

Indian culture was full of religious feelings and it was assigned a very high place in the field of education. Vedic culture was kept intact and transmitted through word of mouth to succeeding generations. The ancient Indian education system was also successful in Preserving and spreading its culture and literature even without the help of art of writing, it was only because of the destruction of temples and monasteries by invaders that literature was lost. The cultural unity that exists even today in the vast- sub continent in due to the successful preservation and spread of culture and the credit goes to Ancient Education System.

17. Commercial Education and Mathematics Education

Commercial education and Mathematics education is also one of the chief features of vedic period. The ideas of the scope and nature of commercial education can be held from manu. Knowledge of Commercial geography, needs of the people of various localities, exchange value and quality of articles and language spoken at different trade centre were considered necessary. Theory of banking was also included in the course. Though there were no organized educational institutional training was usually imparted in the family. As far as Mathematics education is concerned, ancient Indian quite early evolved simple system of geometry. Shulva sutra are the oldest mathematical works probably compased between 400 BC and 200 A. D. Aryabhata (476.52 BC) is the first great name in Indian Mathematics. The concept of Zero also belonged to this period.

18. Female Education

During the Vedic age women were given full status with men. For girls also the Upanayan (initiation ceremony) was performed and after that their education began. They were also required to lead a life of celibacy during education. They used to study the Vedas and other religious and philosophy books, they were free to participate in religious and philosophical discourses. Many ‘Sanhitas’ of Rigveda were composed by women. In Gurukulas the gurus treated male and female pupils alike and made no distinction what-so-ever.

FORMS OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS IN VEDIC PERIOD

1.      Gurukulas

Gurukulas were the dwelling houses of gurus situated in natural surroundings away from noise and bustle of cities. Parents sent their wards at the age of five years to nine years according to their castes after celebrating their Upanayan Sanskar. Pupils lived under the roof of their guru called ‘antevasin’ under the direct supervision of their Guru.

Gurukula as the name indicates was the family of the teacher and his residence where the students used to stay during the period of study. Gradually, the Gurukula were extended to include a number of buildings. However the institution was built up around the family of teacher. The primary duty of the student was to serve the teacher and his family. The students were like sons of the teacher and the whole institution lived like family.

2. Parishads

Parishads were bigger educational institutions where several teachers used to teach different subjects. This may be compared to a college parishad in Upanishads, has been used for a conference of learned men, assembled for deliberations upon philosophical problems. Later on the ‘Parishads’ were set up at the places where learned men lived in good number and gradually these institutions became permanent centres of imparting knowledge. In the words of Dr. R. K. Mukherjee Parishad correspondences to University of students belonging to different colleges.

3. Sammelan

Sammelan literally means getting together for a particular purpose. In this type of educational institutions scholars gathered at one place for learned discussions and competitions generally on the invitation of the king. Scholars were appropriately rewarded.

ROLE OF TEACHER AND STUDENTS

In Bhartiya Darshan ‘Guru‘has significant place. It consists of two words, Gu-ru. The word ‘Gu’ indicated darkness and ‘ru’ means controller. It means to avoid darkness or ignorance. In Vedas the term achariya is used for guru. Guru is considered greatest treasure of knowledge.

 In educative process teacher and students are the two components; a teacher provides physical, materialistic and spiritual knowledge to his students. The educative process is teacher centred. Guru satisfies the curiosity and needs of his students. Guru was the spiritual father of his pupils. Gurus were taking care of their pupil in same manner as a father takes care of his son.

When a student was to become a pupil of any Guru, the recognized way of making application to him was to approach him with fuel in his hands as a sign that he wished to serve him and help to maintain his sacred fire. With ‘Upanayan’ ceremony the disciple (shishya) gained the generous shelter and patronage of his gurus. The term ‘shishya’ indicates the following qualities.

a) He is to be administered guru

b) He is able to obey his guru

c) He may be punished by his guru

d) He is be wished by his guru

e) He is to be Preached by his guru

f) He is to be treated equality

g) He is devoted committed to acquired wisdom

In the Dharam Sutra, there are rules laid down for the conduct of both teachers and pupils. The pupil was subjected to a rigid discipline and was under certain obligations towards his teacher. He should remain with his teacher as long as his course lasted and not live with anybody else.

CONCLUSION

In Vedic era education had the prominent place in society. It was considered as pious and important for society. Education was must for everybody for becoming cultured. Relationship between Guru and pupils were very cordial during vedic and post- vedic period. By means of education efforts were being made to infuse ―Satyam Shivam and Sundaram‖ inside the students. A great importance was attached to veda in education system, self study Swadhyaya was considered more important during that period. The vedic period favored women education.

The ancient Indian education system was successful in preserving end spreading its culture and literature even without the help of art of writing. It was only because of the destruction of temples and monasteries by invaders that the literature was lost. The cultural unity that exists even today in the vast sub-continent is due to successful preservation & spread of culture. The education system infused a sense of responsibilities and social values. The ancient education system achieved its aims to the fullest extent.

 Ancient education emerged from Vedas. The basis of Indian culture lies in the Vedas.

Different type of data ...Statistics in education

DATA TYPES / MASUREMENT

       Variable can take on many different forms and levels sophistication.      

         The relationship between what is being measured and the number that represent what is being measured known as the levels measurement. Broadly speaking, variable can be categorical or continuous, and  can have different levels of measurement.

    I.            Categorical variable:

A categorical variable is made up categories.

The entities are different categories this known as categorical variables which includes,

• Ø         Binary variable
• Ø         Nominal variable
• Ø       Ordinal variable         

Ø Binary :  A categorical variable is one that name distinct entities. In its simplest form it name just two distinct types things, and this is known as Binary variables.

eg: male or female, alive or dead, pregnant or not, and responding “Yes” or” No” to a question.

Ø  Nominal :  When two things that are equivalent in some sense are given the same name (or number),but there are more than two possibilities ,the variable is said to be a nominal variables.

It should be obvious that if the variable is made up of names , it is pointless to do arithmetic on them(if you multiply a human by a cat,  you do not get a hat ). However, sometimes numbers are used to denote categories.

Eg: The numbers worn by players in a football team. In football, the numbers of shifts denote specific field positions, so the number 10 is always worn by the fly-half and the number 1 is always the hooker. These numbers do not tell us anything other than what position the player plays. We could equally have shirts with FH and H instead of 10 and 1.A number 10 players is not necessarily better than a number 1 .It is equally as daft to try to do arithmetic with nominal scales.

Ø  Ordinal :  When categories are ordered, the variables is known as ordinal variable. However, these data tell us nothing about the differences between values. Ordinal scale, numbers reflect their rank order or merits position within their own group or class with respect to some quality, property or performance.

 The ordinal scale places events in order .The defect in such scale lice in the fact that the units along the scale are unequal in size.

The difference in the achievement scores between the first and the second merit position holder is not necessarily equal to the difference between the second and third.

      Eg: The beauty contest winners are three. The names of the winners don’t    provide any information about where they came in the contest; however labeling them according to their performance does-first, second and third. These categories are ordered. In using ordered categories we now know that the woman who won was better than the women who came second and third. Ordinal data, therefore, tell us more than normal data but they still do not tell us about the difference between points on a scale.



   

            II.            Continuous Variables :

      A continuous variable is one that gives us a score for each person and can take on any value on the measurement scale that we are using. Continuous variables which includes,

Ø        Interval variable

Ø        Ratio variable

Ø   Interval variable :  Interval data are considerably the statistical tests in this book rely on having data measured at this level. To say that data are interval, we must be certain that equal intervals on the scale represent equal differences in the property being measured.  Interval scales can have an arbitrary zero but it is not possible to determine for them what may be called on absolute zero or the unique origin. The primary limitation of the interval scale is the lack of a true zero. It does not have the capacity to measure the complete absence of a trait or characteristic.

         Eg: On www.ratemyprofessors.com students are encouraged to rate their lecturers on several dimension (some of the lectures’ rebuttals of their negative evaluations are worth a look). Each dimension(i.e helpfulness,clarity,etc.)is evaluated using a 5-point scale. For this scale to be interval it must be the case that the difference between helpfulness ratings of 1 & 2 is the same as the difference between say 3 & 4, or 4 & 5. Similarly, the difference in helpfulness between ratings of 1 & 3 should be  identical to the difference between ratings of 3  & 5. Variables like this that look interval (and are treated as interval) are often ordinary.

Ø  Ratio variable :  It constitutes the find and highest type of scale in terms of measurement. Ratio scales have a absolute or true zero of measurement. So the Ratios value of values along the scale should be meaningful. Here measures are not only expressed in equal units but are also taken from a true zero. The zero on such scales essentially means an absence of quality or attributes being assessed.

Eg; All physical measurement are example of ratio scale, such as length, width, weight, capacity etc… temperature

 In the measurement of all these attributes all the concerned measuring scales start from a true zero.  These scales easily permit statements regarding the comparative ratio in relation to some quality or property existing among the different individual or objects.

CONCLUSION       

 

    These proceding from the nominal scale (the least precise type of scale) to ratio scale (the most precise) relevant information is obtained increasingly. If the nature of the variables permits, the researcher should use the scale that provides the most precise description.  Researchers in physical science have the advantage to describe variables in ratio scale form but the behavioral science are generally limited to describe variable in interval scale form a less precise type of measurement.

REFERENCES

v DISCOVERING STATISTICS USING SPSS, ANDY FIELD,III EDITION.

v KOTTARI C.R, RESEARCH METHADOLOGY METHODS AND TECHNIQUES, II EDITION, NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL PUBLISHERS.

v MANGAL S.K, STATISTICS IN PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION, II EDITION, ASOKE K GHOSH.